Samskara (Indian Philosophy)

In Indian philosophy and Indian religions, samskaras or sanskaras (Sanskrit: संस्कार) are mental impressions, recollections, or psychological imprints. In Hindu philosophies, ''samskaras'' are a basis for the development of karma theory. In Buddhism the Sanskrit term Saṅkhāra is used to describe 'formations'. In Pali it is referred to as Saṅkhāra.

According to various schools of Indian philosophy, every action, intent or preparation by an individual leaves a ''samskara'' (impression, impact, imprint) in the deeper structure of the person's mind. These impressions then await volitional fruition in that individual's future, in the form of hidden expectations, circumstances or a subconscious sense of self-worth. These ''Samskaras'' manifest as tendencies, karmic impulses, subliminal impressions, habitual potencies or innate dispositions.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 105 In ancient Indian texts, the theory of ''Samskara'' explains how and why human beings remember things, and the effect that memories have on people's suffering, happiness and contentment.

Etymology and meaning

The Sanskrit word ''saṃskāra'' (संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready" and "mental impression, recollection".saMskAra
Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany The first context is at the etymological foundation of Sanskara term for rites of passage, while it is the second context, as a form of disposition, impression or behavioral inclination, that is at the etymological root of Sanskara word as a psychological concept in Indian philosophies.

The concept of Samskara is also discussed as ''Vasana'' (Sanskrit: वासना vāsanā), particularly in the Vaiśeṣika school of Hinduism. ''Vasana'' also means "impression, inclination of anything remaining unconsciously in the mind".

Context

''Samskara'', or ''Sankhara,'' is a significant concept across major schools of Hindu philosophy as well as Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Indian philosophy differ on the specific mechanisms about how ''samskara'' operates at the subconscious level. For example, Buddhism considers ''samskara'' as "causal continua" while being consistent with its "there is no self, no soul" premise, whereas the Vedic traditions within Hinduism consider ''samskara'' as "relational properties" (an impression, mark, impulse, tendency or a form of psychological potential energy within) that rests inside the "self, soul" of every person. In Yoga, Vedanta and Nyaya schools of Hinduism, ''samskara'' constitute an affective and motivational field that contributes to the value structure within the person. They subconsciously or consciously endorse the basic inner drives that propel a human being in future action, future premises, future thoughts or future judgments.

Das states that the '' Samskara rites of passage'' is a subset of actions in a human being's life, where going through the rite within the traditions of Hinduism, affects the individual internally as well as externally in how society perceives the person. This occurs in the form of impressions and imprint within, that is ''samskara''.

Hinduism

The Hindu schools differ in the details, but all posit that ''samskara'' are formed in every individual by a number of ways. This includes perceptions (what one sees, hears, touches, tastes, smells), ''chitta'' cognition (what one feels and thinks), willful actions, and also intentions before and during the action. Training and study, in these schools, is a form of exposition, introspective realization and in many cases practice or repetition to make the "impression, imprint" part of one's nature, where the practice reinforces the dispositions (''samskara'') and dispositions reinforce the practice, in a circular feedback. Scholars state that David Hume's "impressions" theory is similar to Samskara theory of Hinduism. The Hindu schools rely on ''samskara'' theory as one of the pillars for their epistemology (''pramana (action, intent) leaves a ''samskara'' (impression, impact, imprint) in the deeper structure of human mind. This impression then awaits volitional fruition, in the form of hidden expectations, circumstances or unconscious sense of self-worth. It manifests as tendency, karmic impulse, subliminal impression, habitual potency or innate dispositions.

Samkhya-Yoga

In Samkhya and Yoga schools, Sankhara, also spelled as Samskara, are impressions or residues that affect an individual's Gunas (behavior attributes). These impressions constitute part of the mechanistic foundation behind ancient Indian scholars' explanation on how karma theory works in practice. Samskara are explained as dispositions, character or behavioral traits either as default from birth or Samskara are behavioral traits perfected over time through Yoga, through conscious shaping of inner self, one's desire, sense of moral responsibility and through practice.Ian Whicher (1999), The Integrity of the Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of Classical Yoga, SUNY Press, , pages 99-102

In Yoga school of Hinduism, all actions and intents lead to impressions and memories, whether they are active or hidden, conscious or unconscious. A person may not remember his or her past karma, yet the impressions shape his character, the habits, the circumstances, the essence of that person because of the impressions left by the karma. These tendencies, subtle traces and innate characteristics, states the Yoga school, continue to affect the person's present actions, assumptions, attitudes (''bhava''), mind (''buddhi''), moral response and interactions with everyone, everything and self. Vyasa, Patanjali and other ancient Indian scholars refer to these as karmic residues (''karmasaya''). Personality, states Patanjali, is the sum total combination of all these impressions and subtle traces (''samskaras''). Individuals tend to do what they did in the past, man forms habit and often returns to those habits, and behaviors tend to repeat because of these ''samskaras'', according to these Yoga scholars.

Vedanta

These are viewed as traces or temperament that evolves through the refinement of an individual inner consciousness and expressed personality, and is a form of "being-preparedness" in Vedantic psychology. All physical, verbal and mental activity, according to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, creates ''Samskara'', or traces inside a person. These ''Samskaras'' together then manifest as inner personality and external circumstances, and depending then on individual's response thereof, these then bear ''phala'' (fruit). In the state where an individual realizes Self and reaches ''jivanmukti'' (moksha), Shankara, Mandana, Sarvajnatman and other Vedanta scholars suggest that the causes of impressions such as ignorance disappear, the individual reaches inner resolution and complete acceptance of self, thus becoming free of samskaras and consequent blissful state of existence.

Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika

In Nyaya school of Hinduism, ''Bhavana'' (Sanskrit: भावना) is synonymous with ''Samskara'', a property that manifests as impressions or traces on the soul. It is a key concept in Nyaya philosophy, and it applies the idea to both living and non-living world. For example, the ''vega'' (velocity) of ''vayu'' (wind) is its samskara, in Nyaya literature.PB Shukla (2000), Metaphysics: Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , page 16 The concept is intimately related to Nyaya's search and reason-driven explanation of causes behind what happens in living and non-living world, and why. All voluntary actions, state Nyayayikas, have a cause, and these are guided by Samskara. For example, a newborn child voluntarily and instinctively acts to reach for the mother's breast. This action, explain Nyaya texts, must have a cause, but the newborn has neither been provided that knowledge nor has the value of the mother's breast been explained by another, nor has the newborn formed any Samskara in the new life. The newborn has that knowledge, that instinct, from some impression, some trace within "from a prior experience".John Derrett (1977), Essays in Classical and Modern Hindu Law, BRILL Academic, , pages 106-107 That is an example of ''Samskara'', assert the Nyaya and Vaiśeṣika scholars.Stephen H. Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 4

In Nyaya school of Hinduism, the existence of Samskara cannot be directly perceived, only inferred. Further, not all Samskara are psychological.Stephen Philips (2014), Epistemology in Classical India: The Knowledge Sources of the Nyaya School, Routledge, , pages 7-46, 134, 163-170 Some simply manifest as memories, premises or beliefs shaped "from a prior experience".

Buddhism

Saṃskāra or Saṅkhāra in Buddhism refers to mental "dispositions". These result from past volitions, and are causes of future volitions. ''Saṅkhāra'' also refers to that faculty within a person wherein these dispositions are formed. Buddhism emphasizes the need to purify dispositions (''Saṅkhāra'') rather than eliminate them.

Jainism

The activities of mind, speech and body, according to Jain philosophy, lead to Asrava, that is, the influx and imprint of karmic residues to the ''jiva'' (soul) of the living being.Anne Vallely (2014), The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, , pages 358-364 These residues bind (''bandha''), forming ''karma sarira'', which can be stopped (''saṃvara'') and released (''nirjara''). The operating mechanism, consistent with the dualism premise of Jainism, is not Saṃskāra as latent mental trace, rather ''karma bandha'' to the soul. The rituals and rites of passage, called Samskara in Jainism, are part of the ''saṃvara'' and ''nirjara'' initiation process, in order to free the soul from the crust of karmic residues.Caroline Humphrey and James Laidlaw (1994), The Archetype Actions of Ritual - A Theory of Ritual Illustrated by the Jain Rite of Worship, Oxford University Press, , pages 193-208

See also

* Saṅkhāra (Buddhist concept)
* Saṃskāra (Hindu rites of passage)
* Samskara (ayurvedic) (Ayurvedic medicinal process)
* Meher Baba on Sanskaras
* Engram (neuropsychology)
* Engram (Scientology)

References

External links

Mimi.hu - definitions of samskara

{{Portal bar, Hinduism, India, Religion

Buddhist philosophical concepts
Hindu philosophical concepts
Karma in Hinduism
Jain philosophical concepts